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Chapter Ⅰ Introduction1

1.Introduction to the Problem1

2.Methodology5

3.Limitations6

4.Defining the Framework: International Law in National Courts6

5.Applicable Law: Substantive Criminality for the Core Crimes10

6.Structure15

Chapter Ⅱ Practice: Core Crimes Prosecutions in National Courts17

1.Introduction17

2.Prosecution on the Basis of National Law18

2.1 Prosecution as an Ordinary Crime18

2.2 Prosecution as an International Crime21

2.2.a International Crimes in National Law21

2.2.b Case Study: Genocide23

3.Prosecution on the Basis of International Law: Direct Application29

3.1 Introduction29

3.2 Specific Rule of Reference30

3.2.a Rule of Reference for Substantive Criminality30

3.2.b Rule of Reference to Establish Jurisdiction33

3.3 General Rule of Reference36

3.3.a Introduction36

3.3.b Germany39

3.3.c Switzerland40

3.3.d Australia41

3.3.e Senegal43

3.3.f Belgium46

3.3.g United States of America49

3.3.h England and Wales57

3.3.i Canada60

3.3.j France61

3.3.k Netherlands66

3.3.l Ethiopia70

3.3.m Argentina71

3.3.n Hungary76

3.3.o Other States81

4. Conclusion84

Chapter Ⅲ Underlying Considerations: What Crime, What Law?89

1. Introduction89

2. Minimalism and Selectivity in Core Crimes Prosecution91

3. Sovereignty99

4. Democratic Legitimacy100

5. Separation of Powers101

6. Manageability of the Law104

7. Development and Coherence of Core Crimes Law110

8. Underinclusion and Overinclusion117

9. Rank and Effects of the Crime and the Law124

10. Penalties125

11. Conclusion126

Chapter Ⅳ The Public International Law Framework of Implementation129

1. Introduction129

2. Theory: Monism-Dualism129

3. The General Rule: Freedom of Implementation132

4. The Doctrine of Self-Executing Treaties136

5. Limits and Qualifications of the General Rule140

5.1 Limits of the Freedom of Implementation140

5.2 The Principle of Consistent Interpretation146

5.3 Separate Regimes for Specific Categories?153

5.3.a International Law of a Humanitarian Character153

5.3.b Jus Cogens163

6 Conclusion170

Chapter Ⅴ The Framework of Implementation for the Core Crimes173

1. Introduction173

2. Characteristics of International Criminal Law174

3. Characteristics of the Core Crimes177

3.1 The Grave Character of the Core Crimes177

3.2 The Jus Cogens Status of the Core Crimes181

3.3 The Duty to Prosecute Core Crimes185

3.3.a Basis of the Duty to Prosecute in International Law186

3.3.b Acceptance of the Duty to Prosecute in State Practice194

3.3.c Amnesty Laws200

3.3.d Conclusion: Current statuse of the Duty to Prosecute202

4. The International Character of Core Crimes Prosecutions203

5. The Characteristics of Core Crimes in the Practice of National Courts208

6. Implications of the ICC Statute and its Implementation217

7. Conclusion219

Chapter Ⅵ The Principle of Legality and Direct Application of Core Crimes221

1. Introduction221

2. Legal Basis and Purpose of the Principle of Legality222

3. A Special Position for the Core Crimes?224

4. The International and the National Principle of Legality230

5. The Principle of Legality under Customary International Law232

5.1 International Criminal Law as Lex232

5.2 Accessibility236

5.3 Foreseeability238

5.4 Penalties248

6. Which Offences are Directly Applicable?257

7. The National Principle of Legality as an Obstacle to Core Crimes Prosecutions263

8. Conclusion267

Chapter Ⅶ Synthesis269

1. Introduction269

2. The International Rules on Direct Application269

3. Reconciling National and International Law270

4. The Future of Direct Application of Core Crimes Law273

5. Implications of Direct Application of Core Crimes Law274

Table of Cases277

Cited Literature291

Table of Documents319

Ⅰ. International Reports319

Ⅱ. National Reports319

Index321