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ONE The Study of Crime5

Social Origins of the Criminal Law5

The Social Image of the Criminal12

Criminology: The Study of Crimi-nal Behavior13

Strategies of Criminological Research21

The Comparative and Historical Approaches22

The Observational Technique24

The Biographical Technique26

The Analytic Induction Technique28

The "Patterns of Crime" Technique30

The "Combination of Tech-niques" Approach32

The Cohort Study Technique34

References36

TWO The Costs of Crime43

The Financial Costs of Crime43

Physical Harm from Crime54

Measuring the Seriousness of Crime57

The Social Costs of Crime59

References68

THREE The Measurement of Crime75

The Emergence of Modern Criminology75

Official Crime Statistics in the United States81

Crime Rates84

Gathering Crime Statistics89

The Measurement of Criminal Victimization97

The Measurement of Crime by Self-Reports103

References105

FOUR The Social Dimensions of Crime111

Geographical Variations in Crime Rates111

Variations in Crime Rates by Size of Community115

Crime within Metropolitan Areas116

Urbanization, Migration, and Population Density118

Temporal Variations in Crime Rates121

Variations in Crime Rates by Sex124

Victimization and Sex129

Variations in Crime Rates by Age130

Victimization and Age134

Variations in Crime Rates by Race134

Victimization and Race138

Variations in Crime Rates by Social Class139

Victimization and Social Class141

References141

FIVE Biological and Psychological Causes of Criminal Behavior149

Biological Explanations of Crime149

Psychological Explanations of Crime157

Mental Deficiency Theories157

Personality Characteristics161

The Psychopathic Personality164

The Psychoanalytic Perspective166

Psychological Conditioning170

Psychological Explanations and the Criminal Law171

References175

SIX Economic and Social Causes of Criminal Behavior181

Economic and Social Causes of White-Collar Crime181

Economic and Social Causes of Organized Crime186

Economic and Social Causes of Conventional Crime188

Anomie and Crime191

Differential Opportunity and Crime195

Social Class, Social Values, and Delinquency197

The Subculture of Violence200

Some Evidence on Social Class, Social Values,-and Delinquency204

References207

SEVEN Social Control and Commitment to the Law213

Neutralizing the Law213

Evidence on Techniques of Neutralization222

Hirschi's Control Theory of Delinquency227

Evidence on the Control Theory of Delinquency230

Delinquency and the Family232

Delinquency and the School237

Delinquency and Other Social Bonds238

References242

EIGHT Learning to Commit Crime249

The Theory of Differential Association253

Evidence on the Theory of Differential Association258

Labeling and Self-Concepts266

The Rewards and Risks of Crime272

References283

NINE Opportunity and Organization to Commit Crime293

The Target of the Crime293

Victim-Offender Relationships300

Alcohol as a Facilitator of Crime308

Planning the Crime309

Materiel for the Crime312

The Organization of Criminal Behavior316

Carrying out Plans for the Crime324

After the Crime326

References328

TEN Criminal Careers337

The Criminal Careers of Habitual Felons341

A Cohort Study of Delinquency344

The FBI's Study of Careers in Crime348

Typologies of Criminal Careers350

Leaving a Life of Crime355

References358

ELEVEN Community Reactions to Crime363

The Informal Control of Crime363

Public Support for the Law370

Individual Response to Crime373

Collective Response to Crime378

Community Involvement in Crime Reduction Programs382

References385

TWELVE Deterrence, Incapacitation, and the Criminal Justice System391

The Deterrence Model of Criminal Behavior392

Deterrence and Individual Characteristics395

Deterrence and the Nature of the Criminal Act396

Deterrence and the Sanctioning Process401

Deterrence and the Criminal Justice System409

Deterrence and the Police409

Deterrence and the Courts413

Deterrence and the Prisons414

Deterrence and Capital Punishment414

The Incapacitative Effect of Punishment416

References418

THIRTEEN Retribution, Restitution, and the Criminal Justice System425

The Social Functions of Retribution428

Just Deserts: The Seriousness of Crimes430

Just Deserts: The Unpleasantness of Penalties433

Just Deserts: Linking Penalties to Crimes435

Retribution and Capital Punishment436

Retribution and the Criminal Justice System438

Retribution and the Police438

Retribution and the Courts439

Retribution and the Prisons441

Restitution: Just Deserts for the Victim442

References443

FOURTEEN Rehabilitation and the Criminal&Justice System447

The Rehabilitative Rationale for Punishment448

Rehabilitation and the Criminal Justice System451

Rehabilitation and the Police451

Rehabilitation and the Courts452

Rehabilitation and the Prisons454

The Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Programs456

Measuring the Success of Treatment Programs457

Types of Treatment Programs459

Testing the Effects of a Group Counseling Program461

The Evaluation of Treatment Methods464

References469

FIFTEEN Attacking the Crime Problem473

Approaches to Solving the Crime Problem473

The Politics of Crime476

Crime and the Criminal Justice System481

Attacking the Root Causes of Crime484

References491

Index493