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PART Ⅰ INTRODUCTION5

Section Ⅰ Steps in History5

1 The Establishment of the System of International Criminal Justice&Roberto Bellelli5

1. International Crimes as a Threat to International Peace and Security5

2. Shared Responsibilities in the Suppression of Crimes of International Concern6

A. The Primary Responsibility of States6

B. Lessons Learnt throughout History6

C. The Responsibility to Protect7

D. Protection through International Justice10

3. The Foundations of International Criminal Justice11

A. Early Experiences: Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials11

B. The UN Ad Hoc Tribunals12

C. The Hybrid Courts14

D. Other International Assistance in Criminal Justice15

E. Common Features of UN Lead Efforts in International Criminal Justice16

4. The International Criminal Court17

A. The Rome Statute's System17

B. The Subject Matter Jurisdiction24

C. Individual Criminal Responsibility31

D. The Trigger Mechanism39

E. Distinctive Principles of the Court42

F. Cooperation59

G. The Review of the Statute60

5. Conclusion62

Section Ⅱ The Experience of the UN Tribunals and their Completion Strategies67

2 The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia&Fausto Pocar67

1. Introduction67

2. Establishment and Landmark Developments67

A. Significance of the Tribunal67

B. Issues Related to the Statute and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence68

C. The Blending of Different Legal Traditions68

3. ICTY Core Achievements69

A. Continued Challenge to Impunity69

B. Fair Trials before the ICTY69

C. International Criminal Law Developments through ICTY Jurisprudence70

D. The ICTY as Catalyst for Other Criminal Jurisdictions72

4. Completion Strategy and Legacy72

A. Completion Strategy73

B. Upholding Due Process and Avoiding Lengthy Trials76

C. Developing Local Capacity77

D. Cooperation of States77

5. Conclusion77

3 The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda&Erik Mose79

1. Introduction79

2. Establishment and Development79

A. First Mandate (1995 to 1999)79

B. Second Mandate (1999 to 2003)81

C. Third Mandate (2003 to 2007)82

D. The Final Period (from June 2007)83

3. Lessons Learnt84

A. Insufficient Number of Judges85

B. Separate Prosecutor86

C. Amendments of the Rules86

D. Interpretation and Translation87

E. Other Measures88

F. Reduced Trial Time89

4. Other Achievements89

A. Accountability for Leaders89

B. Fair Trial by Impartial Tribunal90

C. Creating Jurisprudence91

D. Victims and Witnesses92

E. Reconciliation93

5. Completion Strategy94

A. Introduction94

B. Completion of Trials95

C. Indictees at Large96

D. Transfer of Cases96

6. Residual Issues98

7. Conclusion99

4 The Special Court for Sierra Leone&Renate Winter101

1. Introduction101

A. The Contribution of the Court101

B. Background101

2. Bilateral Treaty Establishing a 'Hybrid' Tribunal103

A. Established Pursuant to a Bilateral Treaty103

B. A 'Hybrid' Tribunal103

3. Fundraising and the Management Committee104

4. A Streamlined Court for 'Persons who Bear the Greatest Responsibility'106

A. Those Bearing the Greatest Responsibility106

B. Notice Pleading and Use of a 'Case Summary'107

5. Legality and Constitutionality of the Special Court108

A. Background108

B. Competence and Jurisdiction of the Special Court to Decide the Legality of its Creation108

C. Constitutionality of the Special Court109

6. Amnesty Agreement110

A. Background110

B. Status of the Lome Agreement111

C. Validity of Article 10 of the Statute112

7. Head of State Immunity112

8. Witness Protection113

9. Legacy114

10. Completion Strategy116

11. Residual Mechanism117

A. The 'Residual Functions'117

B. Ongoing and A d Hoc Functions120

12. Conclusion121

PART Ⅱ INVESTIGATION AND PROSECUTION125

5 Reflections Based on the ICTY's Experience&Carla Del Ponte125

1. Introduction125

2. The Complexity of International Investigations126

3. Engaging Experienced and Qualified Personnel126

4. Collecting Evidence127

5. The Protection of Threatened Witnesses127

6. The Selection of Suspects128

7. Cooperation with the ICTY128

8. Conclusion129

6 Challenges Related to Investigation and Prosecution at the International Criminal Court&Fatou Bensouda131

1. Introduction131

2. Structure of the Court131

3. Principles that Guide the Work of the Office of the Prosecutor131

A. Independence132

B. Objectivity133

C. Complementarity133

4. Principal Challenges134

A. Investigating Situations of Ongoing Conflict134

B. Distance between the Court and the Situations Under Investigation138

C. Operating in Diverse Cultural Contexts139

D. Unprecedented Legal Challenges139

E. Cooperation140

F. The Interplay between Investigations/Prosecutions and Conflict Resolution Initiatives141

5. Conclusion142

7 The Early Experience of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia&Chea Leang and William Smith143

1. Introduction143

2. Overview of the ECCC Goals143

3. Current State of Affairs144

4. The Cambodian Context144

5. Establishment, Structure and Process145

A. Establishment145

B. Hybrid Structure145

C. Civil Law Model with Alterations146

D. Chambers147

6. Distinctive Features147

7. Jurisdiction147

8. Case Selection and Charging Policy148

A. Responsibility and Challenges148

B. Case Selection Policy149

C. Charging Policy150

9. Character of the Crimes151

A. General Features151

B. Categories of Crimes151

C. Criminal Conduct152

10. The Perpetrators153

11. Procedure and Evidence154

A. Challenges154

B. Preliminary Investigations154

C. Documentary Evidence155

12. Early Practices156

A. Human Resources156

B. Consensus and Capacity Building Issues157

13. Victims and Witnesses158

A. Relevance158

B. Legal Provisions158

C. The Witnesses/Experts Support Unit159

14. Cooperation with States, International Organizations and NGOs161

A. The Government of Cambodia161

B. Other States162

C. International and National Non-Governmental Organizations163

15. Conclusion163

A. ECCC's Unique Contribution163

B. Evaluating Results or Improving Output163

C. Influence from Other National or International Jurisdictions164

D. Seeking Outside Experience164

E. Importance of Transferring Lessons Learned164

PART Ⅲ JURISDICTION AND CASE-LAW169

Section Ⅰ Jurisdiction Over International Crimes169

8 The History and the Evolution of the Notion of International Crimes&Paola Gaeta169

1. The Emergence of Prohibitions of Conducts Amounting to International Crimes169

2. The Notion of International Crimes Proper171

3. The Uncertain Status of the Crimes of Aggression, Torture and Terrorism174

4. The Relevance of the Notion of International Crimes175

A. International Crimes Proper and Treaty-Based Crimes175

B. What the International Criminalization of Individuals' Conduct Entails for States in the Area of Criminal Law176

C. The Inconsistency of Some Traditional Legal Constructs with the International Criminalization of Individuals' Conduct179

5. Conclusion180

9 Concurrent Jurisdictions between Primacy and Complementarity&Flavia Lattanzi181

1. Introduction181

2. Concurrence and Primacy of UN Ad Hoc Tribunals186

3. Complementarity in Preparatory Works of the ICC Statute188

4. Complementarity in the Preamble to the ICC Statute189

5. Conditions of Admissibility190

A. Unwillingness191

B. Inability193

C. Sufficient Gravity of the Crime196

6. Admissibility at the Stage of Investigations197

A. The Reasonable Basis197

B. Preliminary Ruling198

7. Inapplicability of Article 18 to Referrals by the Security Council202

8. Self-Referrals204

9. ICC's Direct Repressive Role204

A. Alternative Forms of Justice204

B. Proactive Complementarity207

10. Conclusion208

10 Obligation to Cooperate and Duty to Implement&Roberto Bellelli211

1. Responsibility to Protect and Complementarity211

2. Implementation212

A. A Mandatory Option212

B. The Scope of Criminality215

3. Cooperation222

A. International Cooperation Proper223

B. Cooperation at Large228

C. Challenges for Cooperation230

D. Indirect Cooperation232

E. Remedies for Incompliance236

4. Conclusion240

11 Addressing the Impunity Gap through Cooperation&Nicola Piacente241

1. Introduction241

2. The Complementary Jurisdiction of the ICC241

A. General Features241

B. Existing Lacunae Under the Principle of Complementarity242

C. Ensuring Complementarity through Universal Jurisdiction and International Cooperation243

D. Tribunals 'Statues and Serious Crimes Established Under the Relevant Conventions244

E. Jurisdiction of States Parties Under Existing Binding Instruments245

3. Jurisdiction of States Parties Under Some International Instruments255

4. Cooperation in Corporate Liability257

5. Confiscation and Seizure -261

6. Conclusion263

Section Ⅱ Select Practice267

12 Genocide Case Law at the ICTY&Susanne Malmstrom267

1. Introduction267

A. The ICTY's Scope of Jurisdiction267

B. Outcome of Indictments268

2. Definition of the Crime of Genocide271

A. Actus Reus271

B. Mens Rea277

3. Conclusion283

13 Crimes Against Humanity in the Former Yugoslavia&B. Don Taylor III285

1. Introduction285

2. Crimes Against Humanity (Article 5 ICTYSt)287

A. Jurisdictional Prerequisite: Armed Conflict287

B. General Elements288

3. Conclusion294

14 War Crimes at the ICTY: Jurisdictional and Substantive Issues&Guido Acquaviva295

1. Introductory Remarks295

2. War Crimes in Historical Perspective295

3. War Crimes before the ICTY296

4. Armed Conflicts297

5. Jokic and Strugar: The Destruction of Cultural Property302

6. Galic: Attack Against Civilians and Terrorization of the Civilian Population303

A. Introductory Notes303

B. Jurisdictional Issues305

C. How to Prove the Crime of Terror308

7. Conclusion310

15 Gender-Based Violence Offences and Crimes Against Children at the SCSL&Renate Winter and Stephen Kostas311

1. Introduction311

2. Gender-Based Violence313

A. Provisions of the Statute and Rules that Address Gender-Based Violence313

B. Gender-Based Violence in the Cases of the Special Court314

3. Offences Involving Children320

A. Provisions of the Statute and Rules Regarding Juvenile Justice and Child Soldiers320

B. Case Law on Child Soldiers322

4. Conclusion328

16 The War Crimes Chamber in the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina&Melika Murtezic329

1. Introduction329

2. Application of Substantive Law330

A. General Features330

B. The Principles of Legality and of Favor Rei332

C. Case Law335

3. Procedural Connections with the ICTY338

A. Acceptance of Facts Established by the ICTY338

B. Use of Evidence Collected at ICTY340

4. The Right of the Accused to Present his Own Defence341

5. Cases when the Accused Refuses to Appear343

6. Protection of Witnesses346

7. Conclusion349

PART Ⅳ THE ICC AND ITS FUTURE355

Section I The Review Conference355

17 The Object of Review Mechanisms: Statutes' Provisions, Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence&Otto Triffterer355

1. Introduction: Scope, Present Importance and Starting Positions355

2. Amendments Barred Under International Criminal Law358

A. Penal Provisions as an Inherent Part of the Law of Nations358

B. Sources358

C. Addressees359

D. Scope and Notion of Responsibility360

E. Irrelevance of Official Capacity and the List of Crimes362

3. Modalities for Reviewing and Objects of the Review Conferences365

A. Possible Additional Scope of the Review Conference365

B. Optional and Obligatory Issues to be Considered. Articles 5(2) and 124366

C. The 'Settlement of Disputes' Under Article 119367

D. Article 10 Open Doors to Developments of International Law367

E. The (Limited) Law-Making Power of the Court367

4. Common Guidelines on How to Proceed, and Examples Promising to be Effective368

A. Reviewing the Relevant Documents and Proposing Amendments368

B. Importance of the Final Act of the 1998 Rome Conference368

C. The Ius Puniendi of the International Community and Enforcement Mechanisms370

D. Superior Responsibility: An Extension of Article 25 or a Crime Sui Generis?371

E. 'Collateral Damage' and Friendly Fire' under Article 8(2) (b) (iv)372

F. Employing Weapons Listed in an Annex to the Statute. Article 8(2)(b)(xx)375

G. Using Certain Protected Persons as Shields. Article 8(2)(b)(xxiii)376

H. Supporting Impunity by Proposing Elements to Narrow the Definitions of Crimes?376

I. Rules to be Amended?377

5. Conclusion380

A. Unpredictable Developments as a Challenge to the Court380

B. International Criminal Law and Enforcement of Human Rights381

18 Universality: Momentum and Consensus for the ICC&Jurg Lindenmann383

1. The Road from the Rome Statute383

2. A Representative Court384

3. Toward a Universally Accepted Institution384

4. The Future of the Court: Conclusions385

19 The Law of the Statute and its Practice Under Review&Roberto Bellelli387

1. The Scope of the Review Conference387

A. The Preparatory Process387

B. The Integrity of the Rome Statute391

C. Transparency and Inclusiveness of the Process393

D. Nature of and Competence for Amendments393

2. Developments Since 1998399

A. Law and Practice399

B. Detection or Stocktaking400

3. The Scope for Amendments401

A. Issues Under Review401

B. The Weapons Provision401

C. The Opt-Out Clause405

D. Treaty Crimes407

E. Sentence Enforcement409

F. The Object of Other Possible Proposals410

4. Age Limit and Term of Office for Elected Officials (Article 36(3))410

A. Features and Interpretation of the Regime411

B. The ICC Practice412

C. Consequences of the Regime413

D. Towards an Age Limit414

5. Lists of Candidates (Article 36(3) and (5)) and the Composition of Divisions and Chambers (Article 39(2), (3)(b) and (4))415

A. Qualifications of Judges415

B. Issues and Criteria in the Composition of Divisions416

C. The Recent Practice420

D. Proposed Solutions421

6. Future Elections of Judges (Article 36(9))424

7. Term of Office for Judges and Composition of the Chambers (Article 36(10))426

A. The Legal Framework426

B. The Practice at the Court426

C. Management Powers of the Presidency426

D. Composition of the Court428

E. Meaning of 'Continuation in Office'429

8. Election of the Deputy Registrar (Article 43(4))430

A. The Deputies 'Role Under the Statute430

B. The Choice of Deputies431

9. Trials In Absentia (Article 63)433

A. Impossible Trials433

B. International Criminal Procedure434

C. Lessons Learned at the Ad Hoc International Tribunals435

D. Practice and Issues at the ICC436

E. Trials in Absentia Under Human Rights Law437

F. The Precedent of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon442

G. Contempt Cases in Absentia at the ICTY443

H. The Interests of Justice at the ICC443

I. Implications for the ICC447

10. Functions and Powers of the Trial Chamber. Subpoena Powers (Article 64)448

A. Only Willing Witnesses Appear at the ICC448

B. National Legislation and Practice448

C. International Practice449

11. Victims' Participation (Article 68)451

12. Written Testimony (Article 69(2))453

A. Implications of Witness Personal Appearance453

B. The Practice at ICTY454

C. The Limits of the ICC Legal Framework455

D. Enhancing the Preservation of Deposition455

13. From the PrepCom to the Subsidiary Bodies of the ASP (Article 112(2)(a))456

14. Review of the Statute after the First Review Conference (Article 123)457

15. Conclusion458

20 Appearance of Witnesses and Unavailability of Subpoena Powers for the Court&Goran Sluiter459

1. Introduction459

2. Dimensions of Subpoena Powers in International Criminal Justice460

3. The ICC Legislative History461

4. Is there a Right for Witnesses Not to Appear before the Court?466

5. Fairness and Proper Administration of Justice468

6. Conclusion and Recommendations471

21 Implementing International Humanitarian Law through the Rome Statute&Anne-Marie La Rosa and Gabriel Chavez Tafur473

1. Introduction473

2. Incorporating Serious Violations of IHL into Domestic Legislation474

3. Analysis of Article 8 of the Rome Statute479

A. Lacunae for International Armed Conflicts480

B. Lacunae for Non-International Armed Conflicts481

C. Limitations482

4. An Integrated Approach to Implementation of IHL483

5. The Role of the ICC and its First Review Conference485

6. Conclusion487

22 The 'Weapons Provisions' and its Annex: The Belgian Proposals&Roger S. Clark489

1. Introduction489

2. First Belgian Proposal, Addressing the 'Annex to Article 8 paragraph 2, b) xx of the Rome Statute'491

3. Second Belgian Proposal: Draft Amendments to the Rome Statute494

4. Conclusion495

Section Ⅱ The Crime of Aggression499

23 State Responsibility for Acts of Aggression Under the United Nations Charter: A Review of Cases&Edoardo Greppi499

1. Aggression and Collective Security499

A. General Features499

B. Historical Bases for a Definition500

C. The 1974 General Assembly Definition of Aggression502

2. The Role of the Security Council504

3. A Review of Cases. The Security Council507

A. Southern Rhodesia507

B. South Africa508

C. Benin510

D. Tunisia510

E. Falkland Islands510

F. Iraq510

4. A Review of Cases. The General Assembly511

A. Korea511

B. Namibia511

C. South Africa512

D. The Middle East512

E. Bosnia and Herzegovina513

F. Afghanistan514

5. A Review of Cases. The International Court of Justice514

A. The Advisory Opinion on Certain Expenses of the United Nations514

B. The Contentious Case of the US Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran514

C. The Provisional Measures in the Cases Concerning the Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Mali) and the Land Maritime Boundary (Cameroon/Nigeria)515

D. Legal Disputes Concerning the Use of Force or Aggression (Nicaragua and Congo Cases)515

6. Conclusion517

24 Individual Responsibility for the Crime of Aggression&Muhammad Aziz Shukri519

1. Introduction519

2. Individual Criminal Responsibility for Aggression Prior to the Rome Statute521

A. The Rules of Traditional International Law522

B. The Lesson of World War I523

C. The Practice of Trials Following World War II526

3. Individual Criminal Responsibility for Aggression Under the Rome Statute531

A. States in Favour of the ICC Jurisdiction Over the Crime of Aggression533

B. States with Reservations on the ICC Jurisdiction Over the Crime of Aggression534

C. Assessing the Different Positions of States535

4. The Rome Compromise on the Crime of Aggression537

5. Elements for a Regime539

6. The Efforts of the Preparatory Commission539

7. Searching for a Viable Option541

8. Conclusion543

25 National Legislation on Individual Responsibility for Conduct Amounting to Aggression&Astrid Reisinger Cor acini547

1. Preliminary Considerations547

A. Indirect Enforcement of Crimes Under International Law and the Principle of Complementarity547

B. Method of Research549

2. Norms Implementing the Crime of Aggression Under International Law551

A. Leadership Element553

B. The Individuals Conduct557

C. Act of Aggression by a State561

D. Jurisdiction of Domestic Courts to Enforce the Crime of Aggression564

3. Norms Criminalizing Conduct, which Includes Elements of the Crime of Aggression566

A. Preparation of a War of Aggression567

B. Incitement to a War of Aggression and Propaganda of War569

C. Waging a War, Conspiracy and Other Treasonable Offences570

D. Hostile Acts573

4. Conclusion576

26 The Crime of Aggression before the First Review of the ICC Statute&Claus Kreβ579

1. Introduction579

2. Building a Definition and a Procedure582

3. The Individual Responsibility582

4. The Act of Aggression583

5. The Role of the Security Council585

6. Conclusion587

27 The Crime of Aggression and Complementarity&Pal Wrange591

1. Introduction591

2. Complementarity591

3. Scenario I: The ICC is Ready to Exercise Jurisdiction, but National Authorities are Seized of the Case593

A. Conditions of Scenario I593

B. Issues before National Jurisdictions593

4. Scenario II: The ICC Cannot Exercise Jurisdiction In Casu598

5. Scenario III: There is No Provision on the Crime of Aggression604

6. Conclusion605

28 A Pragmatic Approach to the Crime of Aggression&David Scheffer609

1. Introduction609

2. New Article 8bis610

3. Article 15bis: Language Common to Both Options611

A. Option I: Judicial Green Light612

B. Option II: Soft Green Light617

4. Conclusion617

29 Against the Odds:The Results of the Special Working Group on the Crime of Aggression&Stefan Barriga621

1. Introduction621

2. The Princeton Process on the Crime of Aggression621

A. Issues Remaining Open for Future Discussion623

B. Factors Contributing to the Success of the Princeton Process623

3. The Outcome of the SWGCA: A Watershed in the Negotiations on Aggression625

A. The Definition of the Individual's Crime of Aggression626

B. The Definition of the State Act' of Aggression629

C. The Conditions for the Exercise of Jurisdiction:The Role of the Security Council632

D. Entry into Force Procedures for the Amendment on Aggression635

4. The Remaining Challenge: Jurisdiction Over Dissenting States637

5. Conclusion640

Index645