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1 General linguistics:the scope of the subject1

1.1 General linguistics as the study of language1

1.1.1 Languages and languages1

1.1.2 Descriptive,historical,and comparative linguistics4

1.1.3 The term 'philology'6

1.2 Linguistics as a science6

1.2.1 Implications of the term 'science'6

1.2.2 Practical applications10

1.3 The range of general linguistics11

1.3.1 Levels of analysis11

1.3.2 Language and communication12

1.3.3 Phonetics,phonology,grammar,semantics19

1.4 Semantics21

1.4.1 Philosophical and linguistic interest in meaning21

1.4.2 Word meaning22

1.4.3 Sentence meaning27

1.4.4 Extralinguistic context28

1.4.5 Translation31

General bibliography34

Bibliography for Chapter 138

Notes to Chapter 140

2 Theoretical and methodological considerations43

2.1 Abstractions43

2.1.1 The status of linguistic abstractions43

2.1.2 Structural linguistics:syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations46

2.2 Dialect,idiolect,style48

2.2.1 Dialects as subdivisions of languages48

2.2.2 Dialect mapping:isoglosses51

2.2.3 Class dialects and'standard languages'54

2.2.4 Criteria for determining dialect status56

2.2.5 Linguistic tendencies affecting dialectal divisions58

2.3 General and particular60

2.4 The structural treatment of lexical meaning64

2.4.1 Lexical interrelations64

2.4.2 Collocation64

2.4.3 Semantic field theory67

Bibliography for Chapter 271

Notes to Chapter 272

3 Phonetics77

3.1 Articulatory phonetics77

3.1.1 The spoken foundation of language77

3.1.2 Primacy of articulatory phonetics78

3.1.3 The physiological basis of speaking80

3.2 The organs of speech82

3.2.1 The glottis82

3.2.2 The supraglottal organs of speech83

3.2.3 Nasalization84

3.3 Segmentation:vowel and consonant85

3.3.1 Segmentation85

3.3.2 Vowels and consonants:transcription85

3.3.3 Vowels87

3.3.4 Consonants93

3.4 Acoustic phonetics98

3.5 Plurisegmental features101

3.5.1 The continuum of articulation101

3.5.2 Glottal and supraglottal features102

3.5.3 Stress103

3.5.4 Pitch105

3.5.5 Voice quality107

3.6 Phonetics in linguistics110

Bibliography for Chapter 3111

Notes to Chapter 3112

4 Phonology114

4.1 Speech and writing114

4.2 Narrow and broad transcription:phonetics and phonology118

4.3 The phoneme theory121

4.3.1 The phonemic principle,phonemics121

4.3.2 Segmental phonemes122

4.3.3 Phonemic analysis of length and stress126

4.3.4 The syllable129

4.3.5 Tone phonemes134

4.3.6 Intonation136

4.3.7 Distinctive features139

4.4 Further developments144

4.4.1 Classical phoneme theory144

4.4.2 Juncture phonemes145

4.4.3 Prosodic phonology149

4.4.4 Generative phonology159

4.4.5 Natural generative phonology162

4.4.6 Rule ordering163

4.4.7 Autosegmental and metrical phonology164

Bibliography for Chapter 4167

Notes to Chapter 4170

5 Grammar:grammatical elements177

5.1 Preliminary questions177

5.1.1 Uses of the term'grammar'177

5.1.2 Formal grammar179

5.1.3 The basic units of grammar181

5.2 The sentence182

5.3 The word184

5.3.1 Grammatical criteria of word status184

5.3.2 Phonological markers of the word unit188

5.3.3 Variant word forms191

5.4 The morpheme192

5.4.1 The morpheme as the minimal grammatical unit192

5.4.2 Morpheme variants(allomorphs)193

5.4.3 Bound and free morphemes:root and affix196

5.5 The semantic status of morphemes202

Bibliography for Chapters 5 and 6203

Notes to Chapter 5206

6 Grammar:grammatical classes,structures,and categories208

6.1 Syntactic relations208

6.2 Word classes210

6.3 Immediate constituents215

6.3.1 General principles:basic syntactic structures215

6.3.2 Endocentric and exocentric:subordinate and coordinate219

6.3.3 Word order and syntactic structure224

6.3.4 Cross-cutting of immediate constituents and word boundaries226

6.3.5 Comparison with traditional practice227

6.4 Grammatical categories227

6.4.1 Number,gender,case227

6.4.2 Concord and government231

6.4.3 Subject and object235

6.4.4 Morphology in relation to syntax237

6.4.5 Inflection and derivation240

6.4.6 Grammatical functions of stress and pitch features244

6.4.7 Morpheme and category246

6.5 Subclasses,irregularities,and economy247

6.6 Grammatical semantics253

6.6.1 Semantic correlations253

6.6.2 Meanings of grammatical categories255

6.6.3 Class meanings and structural meanings264

6.6.4 Methodological implications267

Notes to Chapter 6268

7 Current linguistic theory274

7.1 Theory formation274

7.1.1 Linguistic theory and linguistic practice274

7.1.2 Rival theories277

7.2 Transformational-generative linguistics(TG)280

7.2.1 General considerations280

7.2.2 Early formulation:Syntactic structures280

7.2.3 Later developments:Aspects of the theory of syntax and after287

7.2.4 Government and binding292

7.3 Other current theories297

7.3.1 General context297

7.3.2 Generalized phrase structure grammar(GPSG)298

7.3.3 Relational and functional grammar300

7.3.4 Dependency grammars305

7.4 Earlier post-'structuralist'theories307

7.4.1 General context307

7.4.2 Tagmemics308

7.4.3 M.A.K. Halliday:systemic grammar311

7.4.4 Stratificational linguistics318

7.5 Postscript320

Bibliography for Chapter 7324

Notes to Chapter 7327

8 Linguistic comparison334

8.1 Historically orientated comparison of languages(comparative and historical linguistics)334

8.1.1 The material334

8.1.2 The Great Vowel Shift in English342

8.1.3 Semantic changes343

8.1.4 The Indo-European family345

8.1.5 Other language families347

8.1.6 The representation of correspondences350

8.1.7 The neogrammarian thesis352

8.1.8 Loan words354

8.1.9 Analogy358

8.1.10 Sound change and generative grammar360

8.1.11 Historical inferences361

8.2 Typological comparison367

8.2.1 General principles367

8.2.2 Phonetic typology369

8.2.3 Phonological typology370

8.2.4 Grammatical typology372

8.2.5 Linguistic typology and linguistic universals373

8.2.6 Structural typology376

8.2.7 Lexical typology380

8.2.8 Historical change and linguistic typology382

8.2.9 Summary385

Bibliography for Chapter 8386

Notes to Chapter 8389

9 Wider perspectives396

9.1 Linguistics,anthropology and sociology396

9.1.1 Linguistics and anthropology396

9.1.2 Linguistics and sociology:sociolinguistics401

9.2 Linguistics and philosophy404

9.3 Linguistics and psychology408

9.4 Linguistics and language teaching:linguistics and communications engineering412

9.4.1 Linguistics and language teaching412

9.4.2 Linguistics and communications engineering414

9.5 Linguistics and literature416

9.6 Outline of the history of linguistic studies in Western Europe423

Bibliography for Chapter 9429

Notes to Chapter 9432

Index436

文库索引446