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Chapter1 Introduction to Telecommunications and Fiber Optlcs1

1.1 Telecommunications1

What It Is1

Telecommunications：Point-to-Point Systems and Networks2

Information-Carrying Capacity3

The Need for Fiber-Optic Communications Systems5

1.2 A Fiber-Optic Communications System：The Basic Blocks6

Basic Block Diagram7

Historical Notes13

1.3 A Look Back and a Glance Ahead13

The Role of Fiber-Optic Communications Technology13

The Industry Today and Future Trends19

Developments to Watch25

Problems26

References27

Chapter2 Physlcs of Light：A Brlef Overview28

2.1 Electromagnetic Waves28

2.2 Beams (Rays)30

Refractive Index30

A Photon36

An Energy-Level Diagram36

2.3 A Stream of Photons36

Radiation and Absorption37

Summary40

Problems41

References41

Chapter3 Optical Fibers--Basics42

3.1 How Optical Fibers Conduct Light42

Step-Index Fiber：The Basic Structure42

Launching the Light：Understanding Numerical Aperture.46

3.2 Attenuation49

Bending Losses50

Scattering52

Absorption53

Calculations of Total Attenuation54

Measuring Attenuation56

3.3 Intermodal and Chromatic Dispersion57

Modes57

Modal (Intermodal) Dispersion60

The First Solution to the Modal-Dispersion Problem-Graded-Index Fiber63

A Better Solution the Modal-Dispersion Problem-Singlemode Fiber65

Chromatioc Dispersion66

Bit Rate and Bandwidth Defined69

3.4 Bit Rate and Bandwidth69

Dispersion and Bit Rate70

3.5 Reading a Data Sheet71

Where to Begin72

General Section72

Optical Characteristics Section72

Geometric Characteristics Section75

Environmental Specifications Section76

Conclusion77

Mechanical Specifications Section77

Other Characteristics77

Summary79

Problems80

References82

Chapter4 Optical Fibers-A Deeper Look83

4.1 Maxwell s Equations83

Set of Maxwell s Equations83

Interpretation of Maxwell s Equations85

Wave Equations87

Solving Wave Equations89

4.2 Propagation of EM Waves90

Wave Equations for a Time-Harmonic EM Field90

EM Waves：Propagation in a Lossy Medium91

EM Waves：Propagation in waveguides93

4.3 More About Total Internal Reflection97

Boundary Conditions97

Refiectances99

4.4 More About Modes101

Some Words About Mode Theory and Important Results101

Linear-Polarized (LP) Modes102

Three Types of Modes： Guided, Radiation ,and Leaky107

Phase and Group Velocities107

Power Confinement109

Cutoff Wavelength (Frequency)110

Computer Simulation114

4.5 Attenuation in Multimode Fibers114

General Approach115

Intrinsic Losses116

Extrinsic Losses-Absorption117

Extrinsic Losses-Bending Losses118

Modes, Attenuation, and Attenuation Constant120

General Comments122

4.6 Dispetsion in Multimode Fibers122

Intermodal (Modal) Dispersion-A Closer Look125

Chromatic Dispersion-Material Dispersion126

Waveguied Dispersion132

Bandwidth of Multimode Fibers132

Summary135

Problems136

References137

The Principle of Action139

Chapter5 Singiemode Fibers-Basics139

5.1 How a Singlemode Fiber Works139

Gaussian Beam140

Core, Cladding,and Mode-Fieid Diameter(MFD)142

Cutoff Wavelength143

5.2 Attenuation144

Bending Losses144

Scattering146

Absorption146

Chromatic Dispersion147

5.3 Dispersion and Bandwidth147

Conventional, Dispersion-Shifted, and Dispersion-Flattened Fibers153

Polarization-Mode Dispersion(PMD)155

Bandwidth (Bit Rate) of a singlemode Fiber158

Reading a Data Sheet160

General Section160

Specifications Section160

Summary165

Problems166

References167

Gaussian Model and Real Mode-Field Distribution168

Chapter6 Singlemode Fibers-A Deeper Look168

6.1 Mode Field168

Curoff Wavelength and V-number171

6.2 More About Attenuation in a Singlemode Fiber172

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Losses173

6.3 Coping with Dispersion in a Singlemode Fiber178

Chromatic Dispersion178

Coping with Chromatic Dispersion180

Compensation for Chromatic Dispersion with Dispersion-Compensating Fiber181

Dispersion-Compensating Gratings (DCG)185

Dispersion Compensation：The System Viewpoint187

Coping With PMD188

Polarization-Dependent Loss (PDL)194

Brief Summary195

6.4 Nonlinear Effects in a Singlemode Fiber195

Nonlinear Refractive Effects195

Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)200

Stimulated Scattering202

6.5 Trends in Fiber Design204

Summary206

Problems207

References208

Chapter7 Fabrication, Cabling, and Installation210

7.1 Fabrication210

Two Major Stages211

Vapor-Phase Deposition Methods213

Coating218

7.2 Fiber-Optic Cables220

Cables220

Reading Data Sheets242

Installation Procedure244

Classification244

7.3 Installation-Placing the Cable244

Summary246

Problems246

References247

Chapter8 Fiber Cable Connectorization and Testing248

8.1 Splicing248

Connection Losses248

Splicing Procedure252

Conclusion257

8.2 Connectors257

Connectors-A Basic Structure258

Major Characteristics259

Connector Styles-Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow261

Standards265

Reading Data Sheets266

Termination Process266

Receptacles, Adapters, and Special Connectors267

Tests and Measurements267

8.3 Installation Hardware270

Why Installation Hardware270

Hardware Systems and Components272

8.4 Design of Local-Area-Network Installation283

Conclusion283

Link Consideration-Power Budget and Rise-Time Budget (Bandwidth)284

Local Area Network-General Considerations288

Cabling of Local Area Networks291

Basic Recommendations293

Plastic (Polymer) Optical Fiber (POF)295

8.5 Testing, Troubleshooting, and Measurement296

Test Equipment296

What We Need to Test304

Testing Network Attenuation304

Connector and Splice Testing307

Testing Network Bandwidth307

Trobleshooting310

Summary310

Problems311

References312

Chapter9 Light Sources and Transmitters-Basics313

9.1 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)313

Light Radiation by a Semiconductor314

General Considerations318

9.2 Laser Diodes (LDs)322

Reading Data Sheets-Characteristics of LEDs324

Prainciple of Action333

Superluminescent Diodes (SLDs)347

9.3 Reading Data Sheets-The Characteristics of Laser Diodes347

Broad-Area Laser Diodes347

Reading the Data Sheet of a DEB Laser Diode354

Summary359

Problems360

References364

Intrinsic Semiconductors：Fermi Energy and Number of Charge Carriers365

10.1 More About Semiconductors365

Chapter10 Light Sources and Transmitters-A Deeper Look365

Doped Semiconductors368

p-n Junction369

Biasing371

A Closer Look at the Bandgaps372

10.2 Efficiency of a Laser Diode375

Input-Output Relationship375

Three Types of Efficiency377

More About the Efficiency of Laser-Diode Operation381

Threshold and Operating Currents386

10.3 Characteristics of Laser Diodes386

Radiating Wavelength and Spectral Width388

Radiation Patterns390

Laser Modulation393

Chirp398

Noise399

10.4 Transmitter Modules400

Functional Block Diagram and Typical Circuits of a Transmitter401

Packaging and Reliability410

Reading the Transmitter s Data Sheet413

External Modulators416

Summary428

Problems428

References433

Chapter11 Receivers434

11.1 Photodiodes434

P-n Photodiodes：How They Work434

Power Relationship437

Bandwidth442

P-i-n Photodiodes445

Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs)447

MSM Photodetectors450

11.2 Reading the Data Sheets of Photodiodes451

Data Sheet of a p-I-n Photodiode451

Data Sheet of an Avalanche Photodiode458

Silicon Photodiodes459

Conclusion459

11.3 More About Photodetectors460

Noise Sources in a Photodiode460

Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Noise-Equivalent Power465

Sensitivity and Quantum Limit470

Functonal Block Diagram and Tyical Circuits of a Receiver476

11.4 Receiver Units476

Decision-Circuit Design482

Reading a Receiver s Data Sheet487

Opto-Electronic IC (OEIC)490

Summary491

Problems493

References497

Chapter12 Components of Fiber-Optic Networks499

12.1 Fiber-Optic Networks：An Overview499

Point-to-Point Links499

Networks501

Transmitters511

12.1 Transceivers for Fiber-OPtic Networks511

Receivers520

12.3 Semiconductor OPtical Amplifiers523

Optical Amplifiers：General Considerations524

Principle of Operation of a Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA)526

Gain of an SOA526

Bandwidth of an SOA532

Crosstalk534

Polarization-Dependent Gain536

Noise536

Reading The Data Sheet of an SOA540

SOA Applications541

SOAs：Advantages and Drawbacks541

12.4 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs)542

How Amplification Occurs542

C-Band and L-Band545

Gain and Noise in an Erbium-Doped Fiber545

Components of an EDFA Module551

Reading an EDFA Data Sheet569

Other Types of Optical Fiber Amplifiers577

Summary579

Problems581

References584

Chapter13 Passive Components, Switches, and Functional Modules of Fiber-Optic Networks586

13.1 Couplers/Splitters586

Fused Biconical Taper (FBT) Couplers-Their Principle of Operation586

Reading a Data Sheet588

FBT Couplers：How to Make a WDM Coupler597

Phase Mismatch601

13.2 Wavelenght-Division Multiplexers and Demultiplexers603

WDM MUX/DEMUX and Couplers604

WDM MUXs and DEMUXs：How They Work606

WDM MUX/DEMUX Applications-Add/Duop and Routers614

13.3 Filers616

Optical Filters：What They Are616

Fixed Filters619

Tunable Filters622

13.4 Isolators, Circulators, and Attenuators627

Isolators627

Circulators633

Attenuators634

Optical Switches637

13.5 Optical Switches and Functional Modules637

Wavelength Converters642

Functional Modules643

Conclusion646

Summary647

Problems648

References649

Chapter14 An Introduction to Fiber-Optic Networks651

14.1 The What and How of Data Transmission652

What to Transmit：Vocice, Video, and Data652

Telephone Networks652

Computer Networks662

14.2 Elements of the Architecture of Fiber-Optic Networks673

Networks, Protocols, and Services673

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model674

SONET Networks and Layers680

ATM Networks and Layers683

Layered Architecture of Fiber-Optic Networks685

Optical Layer687

14.3 Network Management and the Future of Fiber-OPtic Networks691

The Functions of Network Management691

How Network Management Is Implemented692

Fiber-Opetic-Network Survivability (Protection and Restoration)694

Cable TV699

Conclusion：The Future of Fiber-Opti Networks700

Summary703

Problems707

References709

Chapter15 Conclusion712

15.1 Bandwidth：The Industry s Holy Grail712

15.2 Deployment of New Fiber-Optic Lines713

15.3 Optical Fiber：Problems Galore, Solutions Sought714

15.4 Fiber-Optic Components715

15.5 Wavelenght-Division Multiplexing：A Dire Need Met717

15.6 Networks717

15.7 Wireless Communications and Fiber-Optic Networks719

Summing UP719

References719

AppendixA List of Constants, Powers of Ten, International System of Units, Deciobel Units, and the Greek Alphabet721

AppendixB Acronyms, Abbreviations, Symbols, and Units Used in this Book724

AppendixC A Selected Bibliography731

AppendixD Products, Services, and Standards740

Index743