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Chapter 1 CONSIDERATIONS OF COMPARATIVE METHODOLOGY1

1.1 Law and state as common denominators of humanity1

1.1.1 The law2

1.1.2 The state4

1.1.2.1 The authority of the state4

1.1.2.2 Emergence of the modern state8

Feudalism10

The Standestaat10

Absolutism11

The English parliamentary and cabinet system11

The French Revolution13

The Constitution of the United States14

1.2 Comparative law: nature and issues15

1.2.1 Is comparative law a method, a discipline or a science?15

1.2.2 The need for a tertium comparationis17

1.3 Comparison in the field of constitutional law19

1.3.1 Constitutionalism20

1.3.1.1 The hazards of definition20

1.3.1.2 The faces of constitutionalism20

Classic constitutionalism21

Neo-classic constitutionalism25

Conversions to constitutionalism30

1.3.1.3 Crystallised constitutionalism31

1.3.1.4 Contemporary challenges34

1.3.2 The purposes of constitutional comparison36

1.3.3 Published approaches to constitutional comparison37

1.3.3.1 Empirical description37

1.3.3.2 Historical exposition39

1.3.3.3 Thematic comparison39

1.3.3.4 Public law families41

1.3.4 Layers of comparison41

1.3.4.1 Comparison of the law of the constitution42

1.3.4.2 Comparison of constitutional law43

1.3.4.3 Constitutional history and constitutional comparison43

1.3.4.4 Constitutional principles and doctrines and constitu- tional comparison44

1.4 A matrix for constitutional comparison44

1.4.1 Comparability44

1.4.2 Distinction and classification45

1.4.3 Attributes of the modern constitutional state47

1.4.4 Stimulus, framework, purpose and focus51

Chapter 2 PREDOMINANCE OF THE CONSTITUTION53

2.1 Introduction53

2.2 Why is the Constitution supreme?53

2.3 History and foundations of the predominance of the constitution59

2.3.1 Japan60

2.3.2 Germany63

2.3.3 Canada66

2.3.4 South Africa74

2.4 The impact of the predominance of the Constitution79

2.4.1 Constitutional adjudication79

2.4.1.1 The concept79

2.4.1.2 The origins80

2.4.1.3 The countermajoritarian dilemma81

2.4.2 Operation of the judiciary under the Constitution84

2.4.2.1 Japan87

2.4.2.2 Germany90

2.4.2.3 Canada94

2.4.2.4 South Africa98

2.4.3 Constitutional predominance in the legal system104

2.4.3.1 Japan106

2.4.3.2 Germany110

2.4.3.3 Canada114

2.4.3.4 South Africa118

2.5 Comparative conclusions123

2.5.1 The basic notion123

2.5.2 The effect on legislation and the ligitimacy of the judiciary124

2.5.3 Administrative acts and the Constitution125

2.5.4 Government and the Constitution125

2.5.5 Private relations and the Constitution126

2.5.6 International law and the supreme constitution126

Chapter 3 CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS127

3.1 Introduction127

3.2 The classification of constitutional rights130

3.3 The culture of rights132

3.3.1 Japan133

3.3.2 Germany135

3.3.3 Canada137

3.3.4 South Africa139

3.4 Analysis of selected constitutional rights147

3.4.1 Property147

3.4.1.1 Japan147

3.4.1.2 Germany149

3.4.1.3 Canada151

3.4.1.4 South Africa152

3.4.2 Access to the courts156

3.4.2.1 Japan156

3.4.2.2 Germany158

3.4.2.3 Canada159

3.4.2.4 South Africa160

3.4.3 Academic freedom163

3.4.3.1 Japan163

3.4.3.2 Germany164

3.4.3.3 Canada166

3.4.3.4 South Africa168

3.4.4 Citizenship170

3.4.4.1 Japan170

3.4.4.2 Germany171

3.4.4.3 Canada172

3.4.4.4 South Africa173

3.4.5 State-sponsored education175

3.4.5.1 Japan175

3.4.5.2 Germany176

3.4.5.3 Canada178

3.4.5.4 South Africa179

3.5 Limiting and balancing interests181

3.5.1 Japan181

3.5.2 Germany183

3.5.3 Canada185

3.5.4 South Africa187

3.6 Conclusion: constitutional rights in the contemporary constitutional state190

Chapter 4 DEMOCRACY AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF AUTHORITY193

4.1 Introduction193

4.2 Democracy193

4.2.1 Working with the undefinable193

4.2.2 Democratic representation and its British roots195

4.2.3 Contemporary reach of democracy200

4.2.3.1 Democracy as a universal right201

4.2.3.2 The operation of democracy in the constitutional state202

4.2.4 Democracy in the Constitutions204

4.2.4.1 Japan204

4.2.4.2 Germany206

4.2.4.3 Canada208

4.2.4.4 South Africa209

4.3 The horizontal distribution of authority211

4.3.1 Separation of Powers in the Constitutions214

4.3.1.1 Japan214

4.3.1.2 Germany216

4.3.1.3 Canada219

4.3.1.4 South Africa220

4.3.2 Some comparative deductions223

4.4 The vertical distribution of authority224

4.4.1 Vertical distribution in the Constitutions229

4.4.1.1 Japan229

4.4.1.2 Germany230

4.4.1.3 Canada235

4.4.1.4 South Africa241

4.4.2 Some comparative deductions254

4.5 Democracy and Authority in the Constitutional State255

Chapter 5 COMPARING CONSTITUTIONS IN 2000256

5.1 Motives for practising comparative constitutional law256

5.2 Limitations of constitutional comparison257

5.2.1 The state of statehood257

5.2.2 Comparability262

5.3 A method for comparing constitutions263

INDEX265